International Space Station
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| The International Space Station seen from the departing Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-126. | ||
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| ISS Insignia | ||
| Station statistics | ||
|---|---|---|
| NSSDC ID: | 1998-067A | |
| Call sign: | Alpha | |
| Crew: | 3 | |
| Launch: | 1998–2011 | |
| Launch pad: | KSC LC-39, Baikonur LC-1/5 & LC-81/23 | |
| Mass: | 227,267 kg (611,269 lb) | |
| Length: | 73 m (240 ft) from Harmony to Zvezda | |
| Width: | 93 m (306 ft) along truss, arrays extended | |
| Living volume: | 750 m³ (26,500 ft³) | |
| Atmospheric pressure: | 101.3 kPa (29.91 inHg) | |
| Perigee: | 349 km altitude (188.5 nmi) (8 December 2008) | |
| Apogee: | 358 km altitude (193.3 nmi) (8 December 2008) | |
| Orbit inclination: | 51.6419 degrees | |
| Average speed: | 27,743.8 km/h (17,239.2 mph, 7706.6 m/s) | |
| Orbital period: | 91.34 minutes | |
| Orbits per day: | 15.8 | |
| Days in orbit: | 3758 (5 March 2009) | |
| Days occupied: | 3047 (5 March 2009) | |
| Number of orbits: | c.59309 (5 March 2009) | |
| Distance travelled: | c.2,000,000,000 km (1,100,000,000 nmi) | |
| Statistics as of October 2008 (unless noted otherwise). | ||
| References: [1][2][3] | ||
| Configuration | ||
![Station elements as of June 2008[update].](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISS_configuration_jun-2008_en.svg) | ||
| Station elements as of June 2008[update]. | ||
| International Space Station[a] | ||
The International Space Station (ISS) is a research facility currently being assembled in outer space. On-orbit construction of the station began in 1998, and is scheduled to be complete by 2011, with operations continuing until around 2016. As of 2009[update] the ISS is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit, larger than any previous space station.
The ISS programme is a joint project among the space agencies of the United States (NASA), Russia (RKA), Japan (JAXA), Canada (CSA) and ten European nations (ESA).[4] The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) participates through a separate contract with NASA.[5] The Italian Space Agency similarly has separate contracts for various activities not done within the framework of ESA's ISS projects (where Italy also fully participates).[6] China has reportedly expressed interest in the project, especially if it would be able to work with the RKA, although as of 2009[update] it is not involved.[7][8]
The space station is in a Low Earth Orbit and can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. It orbits at an altitude of approximately 350 km (190 nautical miles) above the surface of the Earth,[9][10][11] travelling at an average speed of 27,700 kilometres (17,210 mi) per hour and completing 15.7 orbits per day.[9]
The ISS has been continuously staffed since the first resident crew, Expedition 1, entered the station on 2 November 2000, thereby providing a permanent human presence in space for the last 8 years, 123 days. The crew of Expedition 18 is currently aboard. At present, the station has the capacity for a crew of three. However, to fulfil an active research programme, it will be staffed by a resident crew of six beginning with Expedition 20.[12][13] Early crew members all came from the Russian and American space programmes until German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter joined the Expedition 13 crew in July 2006, becoming the first crew member from another space agency. The station has been visited by astronauts from 16 different nations, and it was the destination of the first six space tourists.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Overview
The International Space Station serves primarily as a research laboratory and is the largest ever launched into orbit. The station offers an advantage over spacecraft such as NASA's Space Shuttle because it is a long-term platform in the space environment. The station allows long-term studies to be performed, both on specific experiments and on the human crews that operate them. Long-term expedition crews conduct science daily (approximately 160 man-hours a week[14]), across a wide variety of fields, including human research, life sciences, physical sciences, and Earth observation, as well as education and technology demonstrations.[15] As of June 2006[update], 90 science investigations had been conducted on the ISS over 64 months of continuous research, with nine research racks and more than 7,700 kg (17,000 lb) of research equipment and facilities being launched to the station. Research topics have been diverse, including protein crystal growth, physics, and telemedicine. Scientific results from station research, in fields from basic science to exploration research, are being published every month.[16]
The ISS also provides a testing location for efficient, reliable spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. The station allows for equipment to be developed and tested in the relatively safe location of Low Earth Orbit. This provides experience in maintaining, repairing, and replacing systems on-orbit, which will be essential in operating spacecraft further from Earth, reducing mission risks and advancing the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft.
Educational activities relating to the ISS include student-developed experiments, educational demonstrations and activities, student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, NASA investigator experiments, and ISS engineering activities. The ISS programme itself and the international cooperation that it represents allows 14 nations to build equipment, live, and work together in space, providing important lessons that can be taken forward into any multi-national missions in the future.[17]
[edit] Origins
With origins in the Cold War, the International Space Station represents a union of several space station projects from various nations. During the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. The Soviets were planning a replacement for Mir to be constructed during the 1990s called Mir-2.[18]
Because of budgetary and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mockups and minor component tests. With the fall of the Soviet Union, ending the Cold War and Space Race, it was nearly cancelled by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to and eventual cancellation of Mir-2, with only the base block of that station, DOS-8, having been constructed.[18]
The similar difficulties faced by the US, Russia and other nations with plans for space stations prompted US administration officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative, multi-national space station project. In June 1992, American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to join hands in space exploration by signing the Agreement Between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes. The agreement called for setting up a short, joint space programme, during which one US astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts would board a space shuttle. In September 1993, American Vice-president Al Gore and Russian prime minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station.[19] They also agreed that, in preparation for this new project, the US would be heavily involved in the Mir programme in the years ahead as part of an agreement that later became the Shuttle-Mir Programme.[20]
It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies, which included Freedom, Mir-2 (with DOS-8 later becoming Zvezda), ESA's Columbus, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory. When the first module Zarya was launched in 1998, the station was expected to be completed by 2003, but delays have put the estimated completion date around 2011.
[edit] Scientific research
One of the main goals of the ISS is to provide a place to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station. The main fields of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science, and quantum physics), astronomy (including cosmology), and meteorology.[21][22] The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the US segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with a goal to increase the utilisation of the ISS by other Federal entities and the private sector.
[edit] Scientific modules
The Destiny laboratory is the main research facility aboard the ISS. Produced by NASA and launched in February 2001, it is a research facility for general experiments, providing space for 24 International Standard Payload Racks, some of which are used for environmental systems and living equipment. Destiny also features a Template:Conver optically perfect window, the largest such window ever produced for use in space.[23][24]
The Columbus module is another research facility, designed and built by the European Space Agency. Launched in February 2008, it provides a generic laboratory as well as facilities specifically designed for biology, biomedical research and fluid physics. The laboratory also provides external mounting locations for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility, Solar Monitoring Observatory, Materials International Space Station Experiment and Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A number of expansions are planned to study quantum physics and cosmology.
The Japanese Experiment Module, also known as Kibō, was put in service during the space shuttle mission STS-124 on 3 June 2008. It was developed by JAXA to function as an observatory and to gather astronomical data. The module also provides an external platform, the Exposed Facility, that allows payloads to be directly exposed to the harsh space environment, which is serviced by the module's own robotic arm, the JEM-RMS.
The station is also scheduled to carry out a particle physics experiment, called the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which will be launched on STS-134 in 2010 and mounted externally on the Integrated Truss Structure. The AMS will search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays, and its experiments will help researchers study the formation of the universe and search for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.
The ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, developed by NASA, are set to be launched for the ISS beginning with STS-129, which is expected to take place no earlier than 11 September 2009.[25] They will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to locally process data from experiments. Finally, the Multipurpose Laboratory Module, created by the RKA, is expected to launch in December 2011, and will be the primary Russian laboratory on the station.[25] It will supply the proper resources for general microgravity experiments.[26]
Several planned research modules have been cancelled, including the Centrifuge Accommodations Module for producing varying levels of artificial gravity and two Russian Research Modules for general experimentation.
[edit] Areas of research
Scientists have a number of plans to study biology on the ISS. One goal is to improve understanding of the effect of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects such as muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shifts are studied with the intention to use this data so space colonisation and lengthy space travel can become feasible (at present levels of bone loss and muscular atrophy, there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on an extraterrestrial planet following a lengthy space cruise[27]). The effect of near-weightlessness on evolution, development and growth, and the internal processes of plants and animals are also studied. In response to recent data, NASA has indicated a desire to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional human body-like tissues and that unusual protein crystals can be formed in space.[21]
Prominent physics problems are also studied on the station. Researchers hope to gain a better understanding of the physics of fluids in microgravity, and they would like to be able to accurately model fluids in the future. Also, because fluids can be combined nearly completely in space regardless of their relative weights, there is some interest in investigating the combination of fluids that would not mix well on Earth. By examining reactions that are slowed down by low gravity and temperatures, scientists also hope to gain new insight concerning states of matter (specifically in regards to superconductivity).[21]
Researchers also hope to examine combustion in low gravity environments. Any findings involving the efficiency of the burning or the creation of by-products could improve the process of energy production, which would be of economic and environmental interest. Scientists plan to use the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the Universe.[21]
The long-term goals of these areas of research are to develop the technology necessary for human-based space and planetary exploration and colonisation, how to improve life in general on earth, and to study the universe at large. Scientists hope to develop better life support systems, safety precautions, environmental monitoring in space, new ways to treat diseases, more efficient methods of producing materials, more accurate scientific measurements than would be possible to achieve on Earth, and achieve a more complete understanding of the Universe.[21][22]
[edit] Political and financial aspects
As a multinational collaborative project, the legal and financial aspects of the ISS are detailed and complex — governing ownership of modules, crewing and utilisation of the station, and responsibilities for station resupply.
The main legal document establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an international treaty signed on 28 January 1998 by the main fifteen nations involved in the Space Station project: the United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. This set the stage for a second layer of agreements called Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) between NASA and Roskosmos, ESA, CSA and JAXA. These MOUs are then further split, for instance into contractual obligations between nations and trading of partners rights and obligations. Use of the Russian Orbital Segment is also negotiated at this level. Hardware allocation within the other sections of the station has been assigned as follows:
- Columbus: 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA and CSA (CSA has agreed with NASA to use 2.3% of all non-Russian ISS structure)
- Kibo: 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA and CSA (2.3%)
- Destiny: 100% for NASA and CSA (2.3%) as well as 100% of the truss payload accommodation
The time spent running experiments by the crew, power from the solar panel structure, and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload & download and communications) are split up 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.
In addition to these main intergovernmental agreements, Brazil has a contract with NASA to supply hardware, and in return, fly one Brazilian to the station during the ISS programme[5]. Italy also has a separate contract with NASA to provide similar services, although Italy also takes part in the programme directly via its membership of ESA.[6]
The most cited figure of an estimate of overall costs of the ISS ranges from 35 billion to 100 billion USD.[28] ESA, the only agency actually stating potential overall costs, estimates €100 billion for the entire station over a period of 30 years.[29] Giving a precise cost estimate for the ISS is not straightforward, as it is difficult to determine which costs should actually be contributed to the ISS programme, or how the Russian contribution should be measured.
[edit] Future of the ISS
NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin says the International Space Station has a role to play as NASA moves forward with a new focus for the manned space programme, which is to go out beyond Earth orbit for purposes of human exploration and scientific discovery. "The International Space Station is now a stepping stone on the way, rather than being the end of the line," Griffin said.[30] Griffin has said that station crews will not only continue to learn how to live and work in space, but also will learn how to build hardware that can survive and function for the years required to make the round-trip voyage from Earth to Mars.[30]
Despite this view, however, in an internal e-mail leaked to the press on 18 August 2008 from Griffin to NASA managers,[31][32][33] Griffin apparently communicated his belief that the current US administration had made no viable plan for US crews to participate in the ISS beyond 2011, and that the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) were actually seeking its demise.[32] The e-mail appeared to suggest that Griffin believed the only reasonable solution was to extend the operation of the space shuttle beyond 2010, but noted that Executive Policy (i.e. the White House) was firm that there will be no extension of the space shuttle retirement date, and thus no US capability to launch crews into orbit until the Ares I/Orion system becomes operational in 2014, at the earliest.[32] He did not see purchase of Russian launches for NASA crews as politically viable following the 2008 South Ossetia war, and hoped the incoming Barack Obama administration would resolve the issue in 2009 by extending space shuttle operations beyond 2010.
On 7 September 2008, NASA released a statement regarding the leaked email, in which Griffin said:
"The leaked internal email fails to provide the contextual framework for my remarks, and my support for the administration's policies. Administration policy is to retire the shuttle in 2010 and purchase crew transport from Russia until Ares and Orion are available. The administration continues to support our request for an INKSNA exemption. Administration policy continues to be that we will take no action to preclude continued operation of the International Space Station past 2016. I strongly support these administration policies, as do OSTP and OMB."
—Michael D. Griffin[34]
On 15 October 2008, President Bush signed the NASA Authorization Act of 2008, giving NASA funding for one additional mission to "deliver science experiments to the station".[35][36][37][38] The Act allows for an additional space shuttle flight, STS-134, to the ISS to install the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, which was previously cancelled.[39]
President Barack Obama has supported the continued operation of the station, and supported the NASA Authorization Act of 2008.[39] Obama's plan for space exploration includes finishing the station and completion of the Orion spacecraft programme.[40]
[edit] Space station
[edit] Assembly
The assembly of the International Space Station is a major aerospace engineering endeavour, which began in November 1998. As of July 2008[update] the station is approximately 76% complete.[1]
The first segment of the ISS, the Zarya FGB, was launched into orbit on 20 November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket, and was followed two weeks later by the first of three 'node' modules, Unity, launched aboard STS-88. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one and a half years until the Russian module Zvezda was added in July 2000, allowing a maximum crew of three people to be on the ISS permanently. The first resident crew, Expedition 1, was sent later that year in November. The year 2000 also saw the arrival of two segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, the Z1 and P6 trusses, together providing the embryonic station with communications, guidance, electrical grounding (on Z1), and power via a pair of solar array wings (on P6).
Over the next two years the station continued to expand with a Soyuz rocket delivering the Pirs docking compartment. Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock to orbit, in addition to the station's robot arm Canadarm2 and several more segments of the truss structure.
The expansion schedule was brought to an abrupt halt, however, following the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia on STS-107 in 2003. The resulting hiatus in the Space Shuttle Programme led to a halt in station assembly until the launch of Discovery on STS-114 in 2005.
The official return to assembly was marked by the arrival of Atlantis, flying STS-115, delivering the station's second set of solar arrays. These were later followed by several more truss segments and a third set of arrays on STS-116, STS-117 and STS-118. This major expansion of the station's power generating abilities meant that more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and as a result the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were followed shortly after by the first two components of Kibō, the Japanese Experiment Module.
As of July 2008[update], the station consisted of ten pressurised modules, and all but one of the components of the Integrated Truss Structure. Awaiting launch are the station's final set of solar arrays (set for delivery on STS-119), the final section of Kibō, the American Node 3, and the European Robotic Arm, in addition to several Russian modules. Also awaiting launch is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, which is scheduled for the final space shuttle flight, STS-134. Assembly is expected to be completed by 2011, by which point the station will have a mass in excess of 400 Metric tons (440 short tons).[41][25]
[edit] Pressurised modules
When completed, the ISS will consist of fourteen pressurised modules with a combined volume of around 1,000 m³. These modules include laboratories, docking compartments, airlocks, nodes and living quarters. Nine of these components are already in orbit, with the remaining five awaiting launch. Each module was or will be launched either by the Space Shuttle, Proton rocket or Soyuz rocket and is listed below along with its purpose, launch date and mass.
| Module | Assembly mission | Launch date | Launch system | Nation | Mass | Isolated View | Station View |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zarya (FGB) | 1A/R | 20 November 1998 | Proton-K | Russia (Builder) US (Financier) | 19,323 kg (42,600 lb) |  | |
| Provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance during initial assembly. Now serves as a storage module (both inside the pressurised section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks). | |||||||
| Unity (Node 1) | 2A | 4 December 1998 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-88 | US | 11,612 kg (25,600 lb) |  |  |
| The first 'node' module, connecting the American section of the station to the Russian section (via PMA-1), and providing berthing locations for the Z1 truss, Quest airlock, Destiny laboratory and Node 3. | |||||||
| Zvezda (Service Module) | 1R | 12 July 2000 | Proton-K | Russia | 19,051 kg (42,000 lb) |  |  |
| The station's service module, which provides the main living quarters for resident crews, environmental systems and attitude and orbit control. Also provides docking locations for Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft and the Automated Transfer Vehicle. The addition of the module rendered the ISS permanently habitable for the first time. | |||||||
| Destiny (US Laboratory) | 5A | 7 February 2001 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-98 | US | 14,515 kg (32,000 lb) |  |  |
| The primary research facility for US payloads aboard the ISS, Destiny provides the station with generic laboratory capabilities, with capacity for 24 International Standard Payload Racks. The laboratory also provides various environmental systems and living quarters to the station, and is the module to which most of the Integrated Truss Structure is affixed. | |||||||
| Quest (Joint Airlock) | 7A | 12 July 2001 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-104 | US | 6,064 kg (13,370 lb) |  |  |
| The primary airlock for the ISS, hosting spacewalks with both US EMU and Russian Orlan spacesuits. Quest consists of two segments, the equipment lock that stores spacesuits and equipment, and the crew lock from which astronauts can exit into space. | |||||||
| Pirs (Docking Compartment) | 4R | 14 September 2001 | Soyuz-U | Russia | 3,580 kg (7,900 lb) |  |  |
| Pirs provides the ISS with additional docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and allows egress and ingress for spacewalks by cosmonauts using Russian Orlan spacesuits, in addition to providing storage space for these spacesuits. | |||||||
| Harmony (Node 2) | 10A | 23 October 2007 | Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-120 | Europe (Builder) US (Financier) | 14,288 kg (31,500 lb) |  |  |
| The second of the station's node modules, Harmony is the utility hub of the ISS. The module contains four racks that provide electrical power, bus electronic data, and acts as a central connecting point for several other components via its six Common Berthing Mechanisms (CBMs). The European Columbus and Japanese Kibō laboratories are permanently berthed to the module, and US Space Shuttle Orbiters dock to the ISS via PMA-2, attached to Harmony's front port. In addition, the module serves as a berthing port for the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules during logistics flights. | |||||||
| Columbus (European Laboratory) | 1E | 7 February 2008[42] | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-122 | Europe | 12,800 kg (28,000 lb) |  |  |
| The primary research facility for European payloads aboard the ISS, providing ten International Standard Payload Racks and mounting locations for external experiments, including the European Technology Exposure Facility, Solar Monitoring Observatory, Materials International Space Station Experiment and Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. | |||||||
| Experiment Logistics Module (JEM-ELM) | 1J/A | 11 March 2008 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-123 | Japan | 8,386 kg (18,490 lb)[43] |  |  |
| Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the ELM provides storage and transportation facilities to the laboratory, with a pressurised section to serve internal payloads and an unpressurised section to serve external payloads. | |||||||
| Japanese Pressurised Module (JEM-PM) | 1J | 31 May 2008 | Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-124 | Japan | 14,800 kg (33,000 lb)[44] |  |  |
| Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the PM is the core module of Kibō to which the ELM and Exposed Facility are berthed. The laboratory is the largest single ISS module and contains a total of 23 racks, including 10 experiment racks.[45] | |||||||
| Scheduled to be launched | |||||||
| Module | Assembly mission | Launch date | Launch system | Nation | Mass | Isolated View | Station View |
| Mini-Research Module 2 | 5R | 10 November 2009 | Soyuz-FG | Russia | 4,000 kg (8,800 lb) | ||
| This Russian component of the ISS, MRM2 will likely be used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station. | |||||||
| Node 3 | 20A | c. February 2010 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130 | Europe (Builder) US (Financier) | 14,311 kg (31,550 lb) |  | |
| The last of the station's US nodes, Node 3 will contain an advanced life support system to recycle waste water for crew use and generate oxygen for the crew to breathe. The node also provides four berthing locations for more attached pressurised modules or crew transportation vehicles, in addition to the permanent berthing location for the station's Cupola. | |||||||
| Cupola | 20A | c. February 2010 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130 | Europe (Builder) US (Financier) | 1,800 kg (4,000 lb) |  |  |
| The Cupola is an observatory module that will provide ISS crew members with a direct view of robotic operations and docked spacecraft, as well as an observation point for watching the Earth. The module will come equipped with robotic workstations for operating the SSRMS and shutters to prevent its windows from being damaged by micrometeorites. | |||||||
| Mini-Research Module 1 | ULF4 | c. May 2010 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-132 | Russia | 4,700 kg (10,000 lb) | ||
| MRM1 will be used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station. | |||||||
| Multipurpose Laboratory Module | 3R | c. December 2011[25] | Proton-M | Russia | 21,300 kg (47,000 lb) |  |  |
| The MLM will be Russia's primary research module as part of the ISS and will be used for experiments, docking and cargo logistics. It will also serve as a crew work and rest area, and will also be equipped with a backup attitude control system that can be used to control the station's attitude. | |||||||
[edit] Power supply
The source of electrical power for the ISS is the Sun. Light is converted into electricity through the use of solar arrays. Before assembly flight 4A (space shuttle mission STS-97, launched 30 November 2000) the only power sources were the Russian solar panels attached to the Zarya and Zvezda modules. The Russian segment of the station uses 28 volts DC, as does the space shuttle. In the remainder of the station, electricity is provided by the solar arrays attached to the truss at a voltage ranging from 130 to 180 volts DC. These arrays are arranged as four pairs of wings, and each pair is capable of generating nearly 32.8 kW of DC power.[46]
The power is stabilised and distributed at 160 volts DC before being converted to the user-required 124 volts DC. This high-voltage distribution line allows for smaller power lines, thus reducing weight. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters. This feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian Science Power Platform because the Russian segment will depend on the US-built solar arrays for power.[47]
The solar array normally tracks the Sun to maximise the amount of solar power. The array is about 375 m² (450 yd²) in area and 58 metres (190 ft) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the sun in each orbit by rotating the alpha gimbal, while the beta gimbal adjusts for the angle of the sun from the orbital plane. Until the main truss structure arrived, the arrays were in a temporary position perpendicular to the final orientation, and in this configuration, as shown in the image to the right, the beta gimbal was used for the main solar tracking. Another tracking option, the Night Glider mode, can be used to reduce the effects of drag produced by the tenuous upper atmosphere through which the station flies by orienting the solar arrays edgewise to the velocity vector.
[edit] Attitude control
The attitude (orientation) of the station is maintained by either of two mechanisms. Normally, a system using several control moment gyroscopes (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, with Destiny forward of Unity, the P truss on the port side and Pirs on the earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes saturated (a situation whereby a CMG exceeds its operational range or cannot track a series of rapid movements) it can lose its ability to control station attitude. In this event, the Russian attitude control system is designed to take over automatically, using thrusters to maintain station attitude and allowing the CMG system to desaturate, a situation which has occurred once, during Expedition 10.[48] When a space shuttle is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude. This procedure was used during STS-117 as the S3/S4 truss was being installed.
[edit] Altitude control
The ISS is maintained at an orbit from a minimum altitude limit of 278 km (173 mi) to a maximum limit of 460 km (286 mi). The normal maximum limit is 425 km (264 mi) to allow Soyuz rendezvous missions. As the ISS constantly loses altitude because of slight atmospheric drag and gravity gradient effects, it needs to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year.[49] These effects vary from day-to-day, however, because of changes in the density of the outer atmosphere caused by changes in solar activity.[50] This reboost can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, a docked space shuttle, a Progress resupply vessel or by ESA's ATV. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) to be boosted several kilometres higher.[49]
[edit] Microgravity
At the station's orbital altitude, the gravity from the Earth is 88% of that at sea level. The state of weightlessness is because of the constant free fall of the ISS. Because of the equivalence principle, the free fall is indiscernible from being in a state of zero gravity. The environment on the station is often described instead as microgravity due to four effects:
- The drag resulting from the residual atmosphere.
- Vibratory acceleration because of mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS.
- Orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes (or thrusters).
- The spatial separation from the real centre of mass of the ISS - any part of the ISS not at the exact centre of mass will tend to follow its own orbit. However, as each point is physically part of the station, this is impossible, and so each component is subject to small accelerations from the forces which keep them attached to the station as it orbits.[51]
[edit] Life support
The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, fire detection and suppression, oxygen levels and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew. This includes recycling fluid from the sink, shower, toilet and condensate from the air. The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar oxygen generation system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station.[52] If required, the crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters.[53] Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda whilst other by-products of human metabolism (such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat) are removed by activated charcoal filters.[53]
The atmosphere on board the ISS is maintained to have a composition similar to that of the Earth's atmosphere.[54] Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi),[55] the same as at sea level on Earth.
[edit] Sightings
Because of the size of the International Space Station (about that of an American football field) and the large reflective area offered by its solar panels, ground based observation of the station is possible with the naked eye if the observer is between 63 degrees latitude north and 63 degrees latitude south. In many cases, the station is one of the brightest naked-eye objects in the sky, although it is visible only for brief periods of time.
In order to view the station, the following conditions need to be fulfilled, assuming the weather is clear: The station must be above the observer's horizon, and it must pass within about 2000 km of the observing site (the closer the better); it must be dark enough at the observer's location that stars are visible; and the station must be in sunlight rather than in the Earth's shadow.[56] It is common for the third condition to begin or end during what would otherwise be a good viewing opportunity. In the evening, this will cause the station to suddenly fade and disappear as it moves further from the dusk, going from west to east. In the reverse situation, it may suddenly appear in the sky as it approaches the dawn.
NASA, ESA and the independent Heavens-Above provide data on opportunities for viewing the ISS (and other objects) on their web pages.[56][57]
[edit] Life on board
[edit] Expeditions
All permanent station crews are named "Expedition n", where n is sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year and are often considered synonymous with "Increments." However, Increments are distinguished from Expeditions as the programme planning period for activities that are to occur during a particular Expedition's residence on ISS. The start of both an Expedition and an Increment is defined by the departure of the previous Expedition crew on a Soyuz spacecraft. The definition of the Increment is in flux in preparation for 6-person crews that will be broken up into 3-person crews which overlap in their 6-month missions on ISS. The current expedition to ISS is Expedition 18.[58]
The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of 11 April 2008[update], it has had 213 non-distinct visitors, and 167 distinct visitors.[59] Mir had 137 non-distinct visitors.[18]
[edit] Crew schedule
The ISS uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC, sometimes informally called GMT) to regulate its onboard day. The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because it experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets a day. During visiting space shuttle missions, the ISS crew will mostly follow the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the mission.[60][61] Because the sleeping periods between the UTC time zone and the MET usually differ, the ISS crew often has to adjust its sleeping pattern before the space shuttle arrives and after it leaves to shift from one time zone to the other in a practice known as sleep shifting.[62]
A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then breakfasts and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control on the ground before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30, when the daily schedule is complete. In general, the crew works 10 hours per day on a weekday, and 5 hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time being their own for relaxation, games or work catch-up.[63]
[edit] Station operations
[edit] Space tourism
As of 2008[update], six space tourists have visited the ISS, each paying around US $25 million. The tourists, or Spaceflight participants, were launched and returned via Russian crew rotation missions on Soyuz spacecraft. In addition, the ISS was the location for the first space wedding, during which Russian cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, flying Expedition 7, married Ekaterina Dmitrieva, who was in Texas at the time. The last space tourist flight to the ISS will take place in April 2009. After that, the station will be upgraded to a 6-person permanent crew, meaning that no more Soyuz seats will be available to Space Adventures, the company which runs the visits.[64]
[edit] ISS golf event
During an EVA in Expedition 14, a special golf ball equipped with a tracking device was hit from the station and sent into its own low Earth orbit. The stunt was paid for by a Canadian golf equipment manufacturer.[65]
[edit] Paper aeroplane launch
Japanese scientists and origami masters propose to launch a flotilla of paper planes from the ISS in early 2009. The mission will take place during STS-127[66] Around 30 planes will make the descent, each gliding downward over what is expected to be the course of several months. If one of the planes survives to Earth, it will have made the longest flight ever by a paper plane, traversing some 400 km (250 mi), and will have demonstrated the feasibility of slow-speed, low-friction atmospheric reentry. A prototype of the origami aeroplane passed a durability test in a wind tunnel in March 2008, and Japan's space agency adopted it for feasibility studies.[67]
[edit] Major incidents
[edit] 2003 – Columbia disaster
The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003 resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US Space Shuttle programme. Another one-year suspension following STS-114 (because of continued foam shedding on the external tank) led to some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft; a STS-114 visit in July 2005 was purely logistical. Starting with Expedition 7, caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a space shuttle for over three years, more waste had accumulated than anticipated, which temporarily hindered station operations in 2004. Automated Progress transports and the STS-114 mission were able to eliminate this waste build-up.
[edit] 2006 – Smoke problem
On 18 September 2006, the Expedition 13 crew activated a smoke alarm in the Russian segment of the International Space Station when fumes from one of the three oxygen generators triggered momentary fear about a possible fire. The crew initially reported smoke in the cabin, as well as a smell. The alarm was later found to be caused by a leak of potassium hydroxide from an oxygen vent. The associated equipment was turned off, and officials said there was no fire and the crew was not in any danger.
The station's ventilation system was shut down to prevent the spread of smoke or contaminants through the rest of the complex. A charcoal air filter was put in place to scrub the atmosphere of any lingering potassium hydroxide fumes. The space station's programme manager said the crew never donned gas masks, but as a precaution put on surgical gloves and masks to prevent contact with any contaminants.[68]
On 2 November 2006, the payload brought by the Russian Progress M-58 allowed the crew to repair the Elektron using spare parts.[69]
[edit] 2007 – Computer failure
On 14 June 2007, during Expedition 15 and flight day 7 of STS-117's visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, causing the temperature on the station to rise. A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm that woke the crew at 11:43 UTC.[70][71]
By June 15, the primary Russian computers were back online, and communicating with the US side of the station by bypassing a circuit, but secondary systems remained offline.[72] NASA reported that without the computer that controls the oxygen levels, the station had 56 days of oxygen available.[73]
By the afternoon of June 16, ISS Programme Manager Michael Suffredini confirmed that all six computers governing command and navigation systems for Russian segments of the station, including two thought to have failed, were back online and would be tested over several days. The cooling system was the first system brought back online. Troubleshooting of the failure by the ISS crew found that the root cause was condensation inside the electrical connectors, which led to a short-circuit that triggered the power off command to all three of the redundant processing units.[74] This was initially a concern because the European Space Agency uses the same computer systems, supplied by EADS Astrium Space Transportation, for the Columbus laboratory module and the Automated Transfer Vehicle.[75] Once the cause of the malfunction was understood, plans were implemented to avoid the problem in the future.
[edit] 2007 – Torn solar panel
On 30 October 2007, during Expedition 16 and flight day 7 of STS-120's visit to ISS, following the repositioning of the P6 truss segment, ISS and Space Shuttle Discovery crew members began the deployment of the two solar arrays on the truss. The first array deployed without incident, and the second array deployed about 80% before astronauts noticed a 76-centimetre (2.5 ft) tear. The arrays had been deployed in earlier phases of the space station's construction, and the retraction necessary to move the truss to its final position had gone less smoothly than planned.[76]
A second, smaller tear was noticed upon further inspection, and the mission's spacewalks were replanned in to devise a repair. Normally, such spacewalks take several months to plan and are settled upon well in advance. On November 3, spacewalker Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock, fixed the torn panels using makeshift cufflinks and riding on the end of the Space Shuttle's OBSS inspection arm. Parazynski was the first ever spacewalker to use the robotic arm in this way. The spacewalk was regarded as significantly more dangerous than most because of the possibility of shock from the electricity generating solar arrays, the unprecedented usage of the OBSS, and the lack of spacewalk planning and training for the impromptu procedure. Parazynski was, however, able to repair the damage as planned, and the repaired array was fully deployed.[77]
[edit] 2007 – Damaged starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint
During STS-120, a problem was detected in the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ). This joint, together with a similar device on the port side of the station's truss structure, rotates the large solar arrays to keep them facing the Sun. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic race ring at the heart of the joint.[78] The station had sufficient operating power to carry out its near-term programme with only modest impacts on operations, so to prevent further damage, the joint was locked in place.
On 25 September 2008, NASA announced significant progress in diagnosing the source of the starboard SARJ problem and a programme to repair it on orbit. The repair programme began with the flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-126, the most recent mission to the ISS. The crew carried out servicing of both the starboard and port SARJs, lubricating both joints and replacing 11 of 12 Trundle Bearings on the starboard SARJ.[79][80] It was hoped that this servicing would provide a temporary solution to the problem. A long-term solution is a 10-EVA plan called 'SARJ-XL', which calls for the installation of structural supports between the two segments of the SARJ and a new race ring to inserted between them to completely replace the failed joint.[81] However, following the cleaning and lubrication of the joint, the results that have been noted so far have been extremely encouraging, to the point that it is now believed that the joint could be maintained by occasional servicing EVAs by resident station crews. Nevertheless, the data from the SARJ will require some time to fully analyse before a decision as to the future of the joint is made.[82]
[edit] 2009 – Excessive vibration during reboost
On 14 January 2009, an incorrect command sequence caused the Zvezda service module orbital altitude maintenance rocket propulsion control system to misfire during an altitude re-boost manoeuvre. This resulted in resonant vibrations into the station structure which persisted for over two minutes.[83] While no damage to the station was immediately reported, some components may have been stressed beyond their design limits. Further analysis confirmed that the station was unlikely to have suffered any structural damage, and it appears that "structures will still meet their normal lifetime capability". Further evaluations are under way.[84]
[edit] Visiting spacecraft
- American (NASA) Space Shuttle — resupply vehicle, assembly and logistics flights and crew rotation (to be retired in 2010)
- Russian (Roskosmos) Soyuz spacecraft — crew rotation and emergency evacuation, replaced every 6 months
- Russian (Roskosmos) Progress spacecraft — resupply vehicle
- European (ESA) Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) — resupply vehicle
[edit] Currently docked
As of 13 February 2009[update]:
- Soyuz TMA-13 is at the Zarya nadir port
- Progress M-66 is at the Pirs docking compartment
[edit] Planned
- Japanese (JAXA) H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) — resupply vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2009)[25]
- American (SpaceX) Dragon — NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (scheduled for 2009)
- American (Orbital Sciences Corporation) Cygnus — NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (scheduled for 2010)[85]
- Russian (Roskosmos) Kliper - still in the funding process, but could replace Soyuz as Russia's primary manned spacecraft (scheduled for 2012)
- Russian (Roskosmos) Soyuz-ACTS - would be used in the event that the Kliper shuttle does not receive funding (scheduled for 2012)
- American (NASA) Orion — possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (scheduled for 2014)
[edit] Cancelled
- Russian (Roskosmos) - European (ESA) Crew Space Transportation System.
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